Volgens het Platonisme zijn er onvergankelijke Ideeën (zoals ‘Paard’ en ‘Eenhoorn’) die buiten ruimte en tijd bestaan. Maar waarom bestaan er bijvoorbeeld wel paarden, maar geen eenhoorns? Plato lost dit op door een God te veronderstellen die besluit in de materie wel het Idee ‘Paard’, maar niet het Idee ‘Eenhoorn’ te verwerkelijken. Is er echter ook een niet-theïstische oplossing?
De Platonist kan beweren dat er vele universums zijn en dat elk Idee in tenminste één universum concreet gestalte krijgt. Zo worden alle Ideeën uitgedrukt, alleen niet allemaal in hetzelfde universum. Deze oplossing lijkt op het multiversum voorstel dat vaak wordt ingebracht als bezwaar tegen het fine tuning argument voor het bestaan van God. Net zoals dat voorstel houdt deze eerste oplossing geen stand. Want wie of wat bepaalt dan hoe de Ideeën over de verschillende universums verdeeld worden?
Hierop kan geantwoord worden dat ons universum net als elk ander één van de mogelijke combinaties van Ideeën uitdrukt. Een ongegronde arbitraire verdeling wordt zo vermeden. Maar zo krijgen we een nogal omvangrijk multiversum. Zo omvangrijk dat het veronderstellen van slechts één universum met een God veel zuiniger en dus plausibeler lijkt. Wat stelt een enkel universum met een God immers voor vergeleken met een multiversum waarin alle mogelijke combinaties van de Ideeën – ook de meest bizarre en exotische –gerealiseerd zijn?
Een tweede oplossing is het veronderstellen van een kosmisch natuurproces. Dit proces heeft op elk moment een bepaalde materiële toestand en die bepaalt welke Ideeën wel en niet gerealiseerd worden. Ieder Idee vereist voor de verwezenlijking ervan namelijk specifieke materiële omstandigheden en daaraan is niet altijd voldaan. Het probleem van deze oplossing is dat de materie weinig mogelijkheden uitsluit. Het zijn precies de te realiseren Ideeën die het doel en dus de richting bepalen van genoemd natuurproces. De natuur ontwikkelt zich in de richting die bepaald wordt door de Ideeën die de natuur moet gaan uitdrukken. Maar wie of wat bepaalt dan welke Ideeën het doel vormen waarop de zich ontwikkelende materie zich richt? Wie of wat bepaalt anders gezegd welke Ideeën door de natuur uitgedrukt gaan worden? Zo komen we opnieuw uit bij een wilsbesluit van een goddelijk bewustzijn. Deze tweede oplossing slaagt dus evenmin.
Er is uiteindelijk geen goede niet-theïstische oplossing. Met een knipoog naar Sartres beroemde essay uit 1946 kunnen we dan ook met recht zeggen: Het Platonisme is een theïsme.
Soφie is een filosofisch tijdschrift dat zesmaal per jaar verschijnt. Zij biedt een intellectuele uitdaging door kritisch na te denken over actuele onderwerpen, geïnspireerd door de christelijke traditie.
Posts tonen met het label Sartre. Alle posts tonen
Posts tonen met het label Sartre. Alle posts tonen
zondag 13 februari 2022
maandag 8 april 2013
Tristan Garcia
Last Saturday there was a debate at OT301 in Amsterdam between the French philosopher Tristan Garcia and the American philosopher Graham Harman. A transcript will be produced, as Harman mentions on his blog. It was something. Many people, ’70 type of underground scene, darkened room and a few spotlights. As if Foucault was visiting us. Garcia’s performance fascinated me. And I’m not really sure why. He might have new profound thoughts about ontology. I will surely check his work. Of course I should elaborate a bit more on why he made me curious enough to further explore his philosophical thinking. And indeed, I could try to reflect on some of his moving statements, such as “Anything is something, no matter what”, “Anything is something, no less, no more”, “The thing is never in-itself, but outside of itself” and “To be is not to comprise, and to comprise is not to be”. But I can’t really. Garcia was quite hard to grasp, occasionally he even seemed unintelligible. Nevertheless I did sense that he is on to something. I saw it, in his way of speaking. I saw it in his eyes. He writes novels as well I was told afterwards. Literature and ontology. Like Sartre, a young Sartre.
Labels:
Amsterdam,
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Drift festival,
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Tristan Garcia
vrijdag 30 juli 2010
Treating others as subjects instead of objects
It seems to me that it is morally good to treat other people not as objects but as subjects. Someone, I take it, has a morally distorted picture of reality if he or she treats other people as mere objects instead of subjects.
Now, Sartre argues that, as a matter of fact, we all try to reduce other people to objects and that everyone is busy precisely with avoiding to be reduced to an object by others. Nobody wants to be considered a mere object in the eyes of the other and everyone strives to be itself a subject by seeking to reduce others to mere objects. So, according to Sartre, the inclination to reduce other people to objects is inherent to our human nature. This might indeed be the case. But that does not make such behavior morally acceptable. I take it that it is morally wrong to try to reduce other people to objects, even if doing so belongs to our human nature.
The thesis that it is just rational to treat others as subjects and not objects is reminiscent to Kantian ethics. The ethical system of Kant culminates in his famous categorical imperative: "Act in such a way that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, always at the same time as an end and never merely as a means". So, Kant's imperative requires that one should not treat a person merely as a means, i.e. one should treat others as ends or one should treat others as means that are also ends. Kant argues for this imperative by claiming that it is implied by our reason itself, that is, it is our own human rationality that learns us that this imperative is perfectly rational and therefore the proper way to act. Note that Kant's imperative doesn't tell us what to do, it tells us how to do it, i.e. it addresses our behavior.
There is another ethical position according to which one should treat others as subjects instead of objects. The position I have in mind is Christian ethics. It goes beyond a Kantian appeal to the principle that it is rational to bring ones actions in accordance with a cognitively correct picture of the world. Christian ethics is grounded in love instead of rationality. Christians would totally agree with Kant that treating others as subjects instead of objects is a way of behavior that is fully in accordance with a rationally undistorted picture of reality. However, according to Christian ethics, one should treat others as subjects not just because doing so is implied by our reason, but primarily because one loves other people. Surely, this love is not the same kind of love one feels for its spouse, children, other family, or friends. Nor has it anything to do with eros. The love meant here is known as agape or caritas. It is reflected for example in these words of Jesus of Nazareth: "A new command I give you: Love one another. As I have loved you, so you must love one another". So, Christianity addresses our way of being. It's about being involved in others and caring about them. We treat others as subjects because we are truly interested in them, not because it is rational to do so.
For me the main question would be this: should we embrace a kind of rational Kantian ethics according to which we treat others as subjects instead of objects because our reason implies that this is the most rational conduct? Or, should we aim at the more profound far-reaching goal of agape or caritas? The first goal should be attainable for most people. The second goal might be much more difficult to arrive at for many (perhaps most?) people.
Now, Sartre argues that, as a matter of fact, we all try to reduce other people to objects and that everyone is busy precisely with avoiding to be reduced to an object by others. Nobody wants to be considered a mere object in the eyes of the other and everyone strives to be itself a subject by seeking to reduce others to mere objects. So, according to Sartre, the inclination to reduce other people to objects is inherent to our human nature. This might indeed be the case. But that does not make such behavior morally acceptable. I take it that it is morally wrong to try to reduce other people to objects, even if doing so belongs to our human nature.
The thesis that it is just rational to treat others as subjects and not objects is reminiscent to Kantian ethics. The ethical system of Kant culminates in his famous categorical imperative: "Act in such a way that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, always at the same time as an end and never merely as a means". So, Kant's imperative requires that one should not treat a person merely as a means, i.e. one should treat others as ends or one should treat others as means that are also ends. Kant argues for this imperative by claiming that it is implied by our reason itself, that is, it is our own human rationality that learns us that this imperative is perfectly rational and therefore the proper way to act. Note that Kant's imperative doesn't tell us what to do, it tells us how to do it, i.e. it addresses our behavior.
There is another ethical position according to which one should treat others as subjects instead of objects. The position I have in mind is Christian ethics. It goes beyond a Kantian appeal to the principle that it is rational to bring ones actions in accordance with a cognitively correct picture of the world. Christian ethics is grounded in love instead of rationality. Christians would totally agree with Kant that treating others as subjects instead of objects is a way of behavior that is fully in accordance with a rationally undistorted picture of reality. However, according to Christian ethics, one should treat others as subjects not just because doing so is implied by our reason, but primarily because one loves other people. Surely, this love is not the same kind of love one feels for its spouse, children, other family, or friends. Nor has it anything to do with eros. The love meant here is known as agape or caritas. It is reflected for example in these words of Jesus of Nazareth: "A new command I give you: Love one another. As I have loved you, so you must love one another". So, Christianity addresses our way of being. It's about being involved in others and caring about them. We treat others as subjects because we are truly interested in them, not because it is rational to do so.
For me the main question would be this: should we embrace a kind of rational Kantian ethics according to which we treat others as subjects instead of objects because our reason implies that this is the most rational conduct? Or, should we aim at the more profound far-reaching goal of agape or caritas? The first goal should be attainable for most people. The second goal might be much more difficult to arrive at for many (perhaps most?) people.
Labels:
categorical imperative,
Christianity,
Jesus,
Kant,
object,
Sartre,
subject
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